Harpsichord: History, Craftsmanship, and Modern Revival

Background

The harpsichord is the elegant forebear of the piano, its iconic wing‑shaped case predating the grand piano by centuries. While it shares a similar silhouette, its mechanics and historical path differ markedly from those of its modern successor.

In a piano, a key strike launches a hammer that reverberates against tightly stretched strings, while foot pedals alter dynamics. A harpsichord’s key action, however, is governed by a vertical jack that houses a swinging tongue. When a player presses a key, the jack rises, lifting a plectrum (pick) that plucks the string. As the jack descends, the tongue slides past the string, producing a brief tone. A lightweight spring returns the tongue to its rest position, readying the instrument for the next key press. Early harpsichords used quills from turkey, eagle, raven, or crow wings as plectra; later versions employed leather or plastic. The instrument’s tone depends on the plucking point along the string and the plectrum material. Unlike the piano, the harpsichord lacks dynamic pedals; its sound decays rapidly after the initial pluck. Larger harpsichords offered a modest dynamic range, yet they never matched the expressive breadth of the piano.

Composers and performers have historically turned the harpsichord’s dynamic constraints into creative opportunities. Ornamentation—trills, mordents, and other embellishments—creates a continuous, shimmering texture. Skilled players employ legato and staccato techniques to further nuance phrasing. Despite its limitations, the harpsichord’s distinctive, crystalline timbre is prized by professionals, collectors, and home enthusiasts alike.

Harpsichord cases are not only visually striking but acoustically vital. The five primary components—the spine (long side), tail (short rear), bent‑side (curved right side), cheek (short right side), and bottom (structural base)—work together to withstand string tension and shape the sound. A wrest plank secures the keyboard to the bottom, while an internal bracing system balances tension forces. Elegant ornamentation and painting adorn many cases, yet the structural integrity remains paramount.

History

The harpsichord’s lineage is mapped by instrument type, production era, and national school—most notably French, Italian, German, Flemish, and English. Its cousins include the clavicymbalum, virginal, lautenwerk, clavichord, spinette, and the piano. The earliest clavicymbalum appears in a 1397 Padua document; the oldest surviving example dates from 1521 in Bologna. The first harpsichord is mentioned in 1514 as a single‑manual instrument. By 1530, a double‑manual harpsichord—complete with four stops—was recorded in King Henry VIII’s court inventory. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Venice and Antwerp emerged as major production centers. Venetian instruments featured slender cypress bodies and ornate exteriors, with single or dual eight‑foot (2.4–2.5 m) choirs. The Flemish Ruckers family, based in Antwerp, produced robust harpsichords and virginals with painted cases and dual choirs, exporting them across Europe. Their designs were emulated by French makers such as the Blanchet family, who eventually supplied the French royal court. German builders favored large, heavy instruments with five choirs and pedal‑style keyboards, the kind preferred by J.S. Bach. English harpsichords, in contrast, displayed simpler, walnut or oak veneers without extensive ornamentation.

By the early 1800s, the harpsichord had fallen out of mainstream use as the piano rose in popularity. Production ceased across Europe and North America until the modern revival, which now sees skilled artisans reconstructing eighteenth‑century national‑school models.

Raw Materials

Wood is the primary material for a harpsichord. American basswood and yellow poplar, Northern European linden, and European tulip poplar form the case of most instruments, except German models that use pine (Ponderosa pine in the United States). Harder woods—oak, maple, walnut, beech, and spruce—provide structural support inside the case.

Soundboards are traditionally crafted from Norway spruce, a species common across much of Europe. In the U.S., the Ingleman spruce—closely related to Norway spruce—serves as an alternative, though its supply is diminishing due to environmental pressures. Occasionally, fir is used.

Keytops are made from ebony, basswood, or ivory. Glue remains a critical component—animal glue still yields superior adhesion compared to modern synthetics. Metal wires, typically brass, form the strings; makers work with local brass founders to ensure optimal properties. Additional hardware includes wood screws, European‑sourced turning pins, and large quantities of action parts such as jacks, jack slides, and hooks. Decorative “roses” cover the soundboard opening.

Finishing involves a gesso primer—a mixture of chalk and glue—followed by layers of high‑gloss “Japanned” paint. Multiple coats are common, with gilded leather roses and gilt trim enhancing the instrument’s visual appeal.

Design

Designing a harpsichord relies exclusively on historical precedent. No new patterns or styles emerge; instead, builders refine existing designs to accommodate modern material availability and safety considerations, such as replacing lead‑based paints.

To replicate an instrument from, say, a 1707 Parisian harpsichord, the builder consults museum drawings, measurements, and contemporary restoration studies. X‑ray imaging and fiber‑optic inspection reveal internal fasteners and hidden details. If documentation is lacking, the builder may request a detailed examination, then produce precise drawings—measuring each component within ±1 mm—to stay faithful to the original. Excessive precision can be detrimental; the goal is authenticity, not unattainable exactness.

The Manufacturing Process

1. Wood selection is dictated by the desired national style and model. The chosen wood is aged for at least two years to reduce moisture and prevent warping. The bent‑side is steam‑bent to a jig that matches the instrument’s curvature, mirroring techniques used in shipbuilding and cabinet making. Smaller pieces are steam‑bent using custom jigs while the main sides are cut and fitted by hand. The case’s straight sections—tail, cheek, front, wrest plank, and corner reinforcement blocks—are hand‑assembled to complete the instrument’s outline.

2. The soundboard, a thin panel of spruce or similar wood, consists of 0.08–0.09 in (2.5–3 mm) slats glued together. Its slightly larger shape ensures a snug fit and proper crown to prevent buzzing. Ribs, including a central cutoff bar, support the board and divide the resonating cavity into high‑ and low‑frequency zones. Bridges are affixed using go‑bars, and the rose hole is cut once the bridges are secured.

3. While the case continues to assemble, the lid and front flap are fitted and hand‑painted. The rose is installed, supported by fabric strips, and gilded carefully to avoid damaging adjacent ornamentation. The soundboard may be left to dry in sunlight before final installation to reduce cracking.

4. Bracing and framing are added to the case to maintain structural integrity and support the soundboard. Lower frame pieces cross the bottom from bent‑side to spine, and a liner provides a ledge for the soundboard. Upper frame members run from bent‑side to spine, securing the upper part of the soundbox.

5. The bottom is assembled from two wood pieces, oriented with grain runs both longitudinally (rear) and transversely (front). They meet along the belly rail and are secured with screws and glue.

6. The soundboard is glued into place, with gobars and pony clamps securing it. Once dry, hitch pins prepare the instrument for stringing. Exterior finishes—plastic protection for the soundboard and gesso coating for other surfaces—are applied.

7. Key blanks and frames are crafted from a single piece of wood per keyboard. Mortise‑tenon joints form the frames. Double‑manual instruments require 1,008 key holes (for two keyboards). Plates for naturals and sharps are glued onto the blanks before cutting. Sharps use ivory or ebony (Italian instruments favor white naturals and black sharps), ensuring proper balance and weight.

8. Keys are finished with felt glued to the back, cut between each key, and trimmed. Upper keys feature weight and pins that guide them via slots; lower keys use a rack and pin system. Piano bridge pins, center pins, and zither pins serve as hitch, bridge, and tuning pins, respectively.

9. The harpsichord is strung, jacks installed, and keys mounted and connected to the action. Tuning involves minor adjustments to plectra tips and action alignment.

10. Case ornamentation—moldings, gilding, and painting—is finalized. A hinged lid and flap attach after the exterior finish completes. Unlike pianos, harpsichords have no legs; instead, L‑shaped stands or supports are crafted to match the instrument’s silhouette.

11. Upon completion, the instrument is wrapped in quilted fabric and padded, then transported by experienced movers. Values can exceed $30,000.

Quality Control

Harpsichord makers are artisans—woodworkers, painters, and musicians—whose deep respect for historical performance informs every detail. Their dual role as builders and players ensures meticulous attention from conception to final voicing, serving as an intrinsic quality‑control system.

Byproducts/Waste

Production typically yields minimal waste. Wood scraps are repurposed, and finishing materials are mixed precisely to reduce excess. Kit makers operate separately from hand‑built manufacturers, though many artisans have learned from kits. Custom parts—jacks, key felt, wire—are usually sourced from specialized suppliers or produced in‑house for personal use.

Safety protocols address electrical tools, dust, and ventilation during painting. Protective gear and well‑ventilated workspaces mitigate health risks.

The Future

The harpsichord’s future remains secure, buoyed by the kit movement and a growing community of enthusiasts. About 25 professional builders operate in the United States, crafting roughly 100 instruments annually for universities, orchestras, and private collectors.

Harpsichord maker John Phillips notes that the instrument’s long‑term viability hinges on music education. Reduced school funding and high private tuition threaten early exposure to niche instruments. Nonetheless, the harpsichord’s evocative sound, once heard, leaves a lasting impression.