The Art and Science of Cheese: From History to Modern Production

Background

Cheese is a fermented dairy product crafted from the milk of various mammals. Since the domestication of milk‑producing animals around 10,000 B.C., humans have observed milk’s natural tendency to separate into curds and whey. When milk souring begins, it forms curds—lumps of phosphoprotein—and whey, a watery grey fluid rich in lactose, minerals, vitamins, and trace fat. The curds are the foundation of cheese, and nearly every culture has evolved its own techniques, with the notable exceptions of China and the ancient Americas.

The earliest cheeses were “fresh,” meaning they were simply salted white curds drained of whey, resembling today’s cottage cheese. The next innovation involved accelerating this separation by adding rennet, an enzyme sourced from the stomachs of young ruminants such as cows. Rennet remains the most common starter, though lactic acid and various plant extracts are also employed.

By A.D. 100, cheesemakers across the globe had mastered pressing, ripening, and curing techniques, enabling long‑term storage. Each region’s distinct ingredients and climate gave rise to a staggering variety of cheeses; France alone offers around 400 commercial varieties.

The 1860s marked another milestone when Louis Pasteur introduced pasteurization—a process that heats milk to reduce harmful microorganisms while preserving its chemistry. Today, most cheese is produced from pasteurized milk, enhancing safety without compromising flavor.

Ageing has long been the simplest method to extend shelf life. Dutch producers in the 1300s sealed export cheeses in hard rinds, and Swiss artisans in the early 1800s developed techniques to grind old cheese, add fillers, and heat the mixture, producing a sterile, uniform product. Such processing also allows the recycling of edible second‑grade cheeses.

Before the 20th century, cheese was a specialty item made in households and rarely consumed. Mass production increased both supply and demand: in 1955, 13 % of milk entered cheese production, rising to 31 % by 1984 and continuing to grow. Though processed cheese is widely available, it accounts for only one‑third of all cheese made today. Natural methods remain dominant, and small “farmhouse” operations have surged in popularity among connoisseurs.

Raw Materials

Cheese derives from milk sourced from cows, sheep, goats, horses, camels, water buffalo, and reindeer. Rennet, lactic acid, or plant extracts—such as wild artichoke or fig leaf rennet—expedite curdling. Additional flavor enhancers include bacterial molds like Penicillium roqueforti (used in Roquefort and Stilton), salt, and natural dyes such as annatto or carrot juice. Some cheeses rely on unpasteurized milk or unique inoculation methods, including the use of dung, old leather, or mud immersion.

Processed cheese blends natural varieties with salt, milk‑fat, cream, whey, water, vegetable oil, and other fillers. It also contains preservatives, emulsifiers, gums, gelatin, thickeners, and sweeteners. Flavors such as paprika, pepper, chives, onions, cumin, caraway seeds, jalapeño, hazelnuts, raisins, mushrooms, sage, and bacon are common, and smoking adds both preservation and distinctive taste.

The Manufacturing Process

Cheese production is linear yet multifaceted; slight variations at any step yield different cheeses. Skilled artisans recognize that replicating a successful factory’s output requires precise environmental control to support the right microbial cultures.

Preparing the Milk

• Small factories may accept morning or evening milk, often unpasteurized, containing natural bacteria that produce lactic acid. The milk is allowed to acidify before heating, depending on the cheese type. Larger facilities use pasteurized milk and add bacterial cultures to initiate acidification.

Separating the Curds from the Whey

• Rennet—animal or plant—is added to promote curd formation. The curds are cut both vertically and horizontally: large vats use multi‑bladed wire knives, while small operations employ a two‑handed knife. Soft cheeses receive larger cuts; hard cheeses are divided into tiny pieces (e.g., cheddar cuts at ~½ cm apart). After cutting, curds may be heated to accelerate separation. The resulting whey is drained, and the curds are pressed into molds to expel excess moisture before aging.

Pressing the Curds

• Moisture removal depends on the cheese style. Some high‑moisture cheeses rely solely on whey draining; others require additional heating or filtration. For cheddar, curds are finely chopped and heated before pressing. Hard cheeses like Parmesan undergo further cooking before pressing. Once pressed, the curds are shaped and prepared for aging.

Ageing the Cheese

• During ageing, cheeses may be inoculated with flavoring molds, bathed in brine, or wrapped in cloth or hay. They are then stored at controlled temperature and humidity. Ageing periods range from one month to several years, enhancing flavor intensity—cheddar aged over two years, for example, earns the “extra sharp” designation.

Wrapping Natural Cheese

• Natural rinds form as the surface dries or through bacterial inoculation. Some cheeses are washed to promote microbial growth. Rinds can be sealed with cloth or wax for local consumption, while export cheeses may be heavily salted (e.g., Roquefort) or sealed in impermeable plastic or foil.

Making and Wrapping Processed Cheese

• Cheeses deemed less desirable—such as Emmental, Gruyère, Colby, or cheddar—are finely ground, mixed with water to form a paste, and blended with salt, fillers, emulsifiers, preservatives, and flavorings. The mixture is heated under controlled conditions, extruded into ribbons, sliced, and wrapped in plastic or foil.

Quality Control

Cheese manufacturing is traditionally artisanal, yet regulatory frameworks exist to ensure consistency. Standards vary by cheese type; for example, cheddar must contain no more than 39 % water and at least 50 % fat. Inspectors evaluate moisture, fat, flavor, aroma, body, texture, color, appearance, and finish, assigning weighted scores to each attribute.

The debate over pasteurization centers on safety versus flavor. Pasteurization eliminates pathogens like Mycobacterium tuberculosis, yet some connoisseurs argue it removes beneficial bacteria that contribute to complexity. U.S. regulations allow cheeses aged over sixty days to be made from unpasteurized milk, while many cheeses must use pasteurized milk. Despite this, unpasteurized cheeses can be safe when produced under stringent hygienic conditions.

Regulatory bodies—such as the European Food Safety Authority and France’s Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée—protect authenticity. For instance, the “Roquefort” designation guarantees ripening in the Combalou caves since 1411. Export cheeses must meet even stricter quality controls to ensure consumer safety.

Processed cheeses face specific legal thresholds: American cheese must contain at least 90 % real cheese; “cheese food” requires 51 % cheese, while “cheese spread” also requires 51 % cheese but includes additional water and gums for spreadability. “Cheese product” (diet cheese) and “imitation cheese” have less stringent cheese content requirements. Quality processed cheese should resemble real cheese, exhibit a pleasing bite, be smooth, evenly colored, and melt without rubberiness.